Islam, like Judaism, has always been a religion that emphasizes obedience to the will of God in the here and now. Therefore, it has never encouraged the ascetic life so characteristic of Indian religions and some forms of Christianity. Nevertheless, in every religion, there is a hunger for mystical experience. Furthermore, Islam arose in a land dominated by Byzantine Christianity, which highly prized ascetic life; in later years, it developed in India, where there us also a strong concern for communion with God through asceticism.

In Islam, the pursuit of a mystical union with God is embodied by the Sufi tradition. The term “Sufi” is derived from the word “wool,” referencing the coarse woolen garments worn by early Muslim mystics as a symbol of poverty and a rejection of worldly pleasures. Sufis assert that their tradition has always been an integral part of Islam, tracing their origins back to the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) and the teachings of the Qur’an. They maintain that early Muslims were more devout and spiritually focused than those in later periods. Indeed, it’s likely that the expansion of Islam into a vast empire led to a shift towards materialism, which contrasted with the simplicity of life during the time of the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). As the Abbasid dynasty flourished in Baghdad, the grandeur of this era prompted some to advocate for a return to a simpler, more austere way of life. Thus, the Sufi movement likely gained momentum during the ninth century.

One of the most remarkable Sufis of the early period was Mansur Al-Hallaj, whose pursuit of mystical union with God led him to the bold proclamation, “I am the truth.” This declaration, along with his disregard for the ritualistic practices of orthodox Islam, resulted in his execution in 922. As he faced death, Al-Hallaj asked for forgiveness for his persecutors. The martyrdom of Al-Hallaj and subsequent persecutions forced the more radical elements of the Sufi movement to operate underground. As orthodox Muslim scholars increasingly focused on the formal and legalistic aspects of Islam, the Sufis turned their attention to its emotional and mystical dimensions, thereby resonating with the common people.

Abu-Hamid Al-Ghazali, a prominent theologian at the Nizamiyah School in Baghdad, sought to bridge the gap between the legalistic and mystical traditions within Islam. Renowned for his profound scholarship in theology and law, Al-Ghazali experienced a deepening dissatisfaction with the Orthodox Muslim doctrines and rituals as he aged. In a profound quest for spiritual fulfillment, he chose to forsake his academic position and family, embarking on a path reminiscent of Saint Francis of Assisi, aimed at finding God through poverty and mystical experiences.

Al-Ghazali ultimately discovered his spiritual home among the Sufis, where he found the meaning he sought. His influential works, including The Revivification of the Religious Sciences, The Folly of the Philosophers, and The Niche of the Lights, significantly shaped Islamic thought, enriching orthodox doctrine with mystical insights. He championed Sufism as a remedy for spiritual ailments, emphasizing, however, that even the most accomplished mystics are still obligated to uphold the ritual practices of orthodox Islam.

In the twelfth century, Sufis began to organize into spiritual fraternities, typically centered around a revered Sufi saint. New converts to these orders were referred to as fakirs or dervishes. Traditionally, novices committed to studying under a master until they evolved into masters themselves.

Sufi practices are diverse, but they generally emphasize principles of discipline, poverty, and abstinence from worldly pleasures. While some Sufis engaged in extreme asceticism and emotional expressions associated with the terms fakir and dervish, such practices are not representative of the Sufi movement as a whole. Reports of Sufis walking on hot coals or swallowing snakes, alongside Turkish dervishes spinning in place for hours to attain oneness with God, highlight the more dramatic aspects of Sufism.

Ultimately, the true essence of the Sufi contribution to Islamic thought lies in their profound insistence on the potential for experiencing knowledge of God through mystical encounters.